A History of China by Wolfram Eberhard
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breve (u-shaped symbol): [)x] caron (v-shaped symbol): [vx] macron (straight line): [=x] acute (egu) accent: ['x]
Additionally, the author has spelled certain words inconsistently. Those have been adjusted to be consistent where possible. Examples of such adjustments are as follows:
From To Northwestern North-western Southwards Southward Programme Program re-introduced reintroduced practise practice Lotos Lotus Ju-Chen Juchen cooperate co-operate life-time lifetime man-power manpower favor favour etc.
In general such changes are made to be consistent with the predominate usage in the text, or if there was not a predominate spelling, to the more modern.]
A HISTORY OF CHINA
by
WOLFRAM EBERHARD
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
_THE EARLIEST TIMES_
Chapter I: PREHISTORY
1 Sources for the earliest history 2 The Peking Man 3 The Palaeolithic Age 4 The Neolithic Age 5 The eight principal prehistoric cultures 6 The Yang-shao culture 7 The Lung-shan culture 8 The first petty States in Shansi
Chapter II: THE SHANG DYNASTY (_c_. 1600-1028 B.C.)
1 Period, origin, material culture 2 Writing and Religion 3 Transition to feudalism
_ANTIQUITY_
Chapter III: THE CHOU DYNASTY (_c_. 1028-257 B.C.)
1 Cultural origin of the Chou and end of the Shang dynasty 2 Feudalism in the new empire 3 Fusion of Chou and Shang 4 Limitation of the imperial power 5 Changes in the relative strength of the feudal states 6 Confucius 7 Lao Tz[)u]
Chapter IV: THE CONTENDING STATES (481-256 B.C.): DISSOLUTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
1 Social and military changes 2 Economic changes 3 Cultural changes
Chapter V: THE CH'IN DYNASTY (256-207 B.C.)
1 Towards the unitary State 2 Centralization in every field 3 Frontier Defence. Internal collapse
_THE MIDDLE AGES_
Chapter VI: THE HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.-A.D. 220)
1 Development of the gentry-state 2 Situation of the Hsiung-nu empire; its relation to the Han empire. Incorporation of South China 3 Brief feudal reaction. Consolidation of the gentry 4 Turkestan policy. End of the Hsiung-nu empire 5 Impoverishment. Cliques. End of the Dynasty 6 The pseudo-socialistic dictatorship. Revolt of the "Red Eyebrows" 7 Reaction and Restoration: the Later Han dynasty 8 Hsiung-nu policy 9 Economic situation. Rebellion of the "Yellow Turbans". Collapse of the Han dynasty 10 Literature and Art
Table of contents (by pages)
- 1: A History of China by Wolfram Eberhard
- 2: Chapter VII THE EPOCH OF THE FIRST DIVISION OF CHINA A
- 3: 2 Ancient bronze tripod found at Anyang
- 4: 12 Ancient tiled pagoda at Chengting Hopei
- 5: Many specialized studies by Chinese
- 6: The specialist in the field will
- 7: Whether the Chinese are autochthonons
- 8: This type is beyond doubt not Mongoloid
- 9: Were the present provinces of Shensi and Kansu
- 10: The Shan in Burma and the Lao in Laos
- 11: And here the painted pottery was found
- 12: Fine black pottery of Lung shan
- 13: With a centre in south west Shansi
- 14: The Shang had sculptures in stone
- 15: The Shang state had its centre in northern Honan
- 16: Many centuries longer than the Shang dynasty
- 17: Officials who served the ruler personally
- 18: When the Shang captured neighbouring states
- 19: Captured the last emperor of the Shang
- 20: The fiefholder feudal lord regarded the land of his fief
- 21: The Chou officially abolished human sacrifices
- 22: Loyang was just in the middle of the new state
- 23: The conquering Chou established their garrisons everywhere
- 24: Ruler of the feudal state of Ch'in
- 25: In the south of the Chou empire
- 26: Institutions of the Shang had remained strong
- 27: Thus in Confucianism the cult of Heaven
- 28: Chuen tz u became to mean a gentleman
- 29: The oldest biography of Lao Tz u
- 30: Lao Tz u pursues another path
- 31: Then spoke Chuang Tz u Begone
- 32: ' Frequently Master Mysticus and Mr
- 33: Was not actually a result of Lao Tz u 's teaching
- 34: By the northern state of Chao in the present Shansi
- 35: This is a period of great migrations
- 36: It was never possible to hoard large quantities of money
- 37: Hsuen Tz u 's philosophy contains a dynamic element
- 38: When the Mohists offered their assistance to a ruler
- 39: Passive action Yang and Yin of the five elements
- 40: Tsou Yen himself was ridiculed as a dreamer
- 41: The present Shensi and eastern Kansu
- 42: Lue Pu wei came with his protege to Ch'in
- 43: Accordingly a fixed length was laid down for axles
- 44: Shih Huang ti had become emperor of all China
- 45: Forming the realm of the Hsiung nu under their first leader
- 46: Emperor Kao Tsu came from eastern China
- 47: Gave a double security to the gentry families
- 48: Gentry families in China tend to be
- 49: The second ruler of the Hsiung nu
- 50: Mao Tun fell in with their view
- 51: Consolidation of the gentry Kao Tsu died in 195 B
- 52: Wen Ti's reign had brought economic advance and prosperity
- 53: Declared that the classic Confucianist writings
- 54: As central statistical authority
- 55: Three counsellors to the emperor 2
- 56: In a remote frontier town like Tunhuang
- 57: But the Hsiung nu were weakened
- 58: In the north of the Tarim basin
- 59: As the Hsiung nu were supplying no horses
- 60: The chief influence of the cliques lay
- 61: It is difficult to evaluate Wang Mang
- 62: Money for the emperor's exchequer
- 63: Instead of attacking the Hsiung nu
- 64: The basis of his power was the district of Nanyang in Honan
- 65: Had been subject in the past to Hsiung nu overlordship
- 66: Turkestan should be left to itself
- 67: Liu Pei had established himself
- 68: The Yellow Turbans were beaten
- 69: The nineteen tribes of Hsiung nu
- 70: The second is a book by Liu An called Huai nan Tz u
- 71: Gentry members were adherents of the religious teachings
- 72: The Hsiung nu formed only a small part of the population
- 73: The Shu Han dynasty was founded in this way
- 74: Thus Wei inflicted several defeats on Shu Han
- 75: Yamato had certain interests in Korea
- 76: The Wei dynasty did not succeed
- 77: B The Western Chin dynasty A
- 78: The disarmament achieved nothing
- 79: Using his bondsmen as a nucleus
- 80: Very frequently Hsien pi fought each other
- 81: All the frontier peoples were now militarily well equipped
- 82: Liu Yuean's Chinese family name
- 83: A former follower of Liu Yuean
- 84: Many traders from Turkestan set up branches in Liang
- 85: This proto Mongol state of the Mu jung
- 86: The Tibetan ruler Fu Chien organized all his troops
- 87: Like the other Hsien pi states
- 88: West Liang 400 421 in western Kansu
- 89: In Kansu the Later Liang and the Western
- 90: This is natural for a Confucian this period
- 91: Khotan in particular became a centre of Buddhist culture
- 92: After this migration the first Toba state
- 93: These Toba now faced a difficult situation
- 94: One undergoing progressive sinification
- 95: The Toba retaining only the military administration
- 96: The Toba therefore began to be impoverished
- 97: By installing his capital in Loyang
- 98: Together with many Chinese living in the Toba empire
- 99: The vast and famous cave temple of Yuen kang
- 100: E Succession States of the Toba A
- 101: A few years later the Turks also annihilated the Ephtalites
- 102: But what had happened to the Toba
- 103: And the earlier Chinese immigrants from the north
- 104: The wealthy gentry of both north and south
- 105: Rice became the staple food of the upper class
- 106: Yue Liang was the empress's brother
- 107: In the Huan family Huan Hsuean
- 108: Liu Yue returned to the capital
- 109: Thanks mainly to General Hsiao Tao ch'eng
- 110: The first emperor of the Liang dynasty
- 111: Especially Wu Ti of the Liang dynasty
- 112: Earlier Liang Chinese 313 376 13
- 113: The founder of the Sui dynasty
- 114: And a reorganization of the Confucian examination system
- 115: He induced the Toeloes tribes to attack the T'u yue hun
- 116: Or at least came from a Toba region
- 117: First legalized under the Toba
- 118: It was staffed entirely with economic or financial experts
- 119: Especially meditative Buddhism
- 120: The Chinese were able to rely on the Uighurs
- 121: In the last year of Kao Tsung's reign
- 122: Who supported the empress Wu and later the empress Wei
- 123: Now called emperor Hsueang Tsung 713 755
- 124: Porcelain had been invented in China long ago
- 125: Loyang was captured and looted by the Uighurs
- 126: Who was related to Tengri by marriage
- 127: For which Uighurs and Tibetans competed
- 128: Huang is not the first merchant who became rebel
- 129: A former follower of Huang Ch'ao
- 130: Becoming emperor in the Later Liang dynasty
- 131: Many clans set up special marriage rules for clan members
- 132: Had made the craftsmen and artisans almost into serfs
- 133: Some of these labourers were so called vagrants
- 134: Szechwan and south eastern China
- 135: With the result of a local deflation
- 136: The founder of this Later Liang dynasty
- 137: Who had not been sinified in the slightest
- 138: The north was under the rule of the Kitan its trade
- 139: In the collection of the Museum fuer Voelkerkunde
- 140: 000 bales of silk were paid annually to the Kitan
- 141: To meet the increasing expenditure
- 142: Had always found means of evading payment
- 143: Living on the border of Shensi
- 144: Social granaries were revived
- 145: When they got tired of Confucianism
- 146: Although Chu became the symbol of conservatism
- 147: And in 1125 the Kitan empire was destroyed
- 148: In 927 the Kitan finally destroyed Po hai
- 149: 2 The State of the Kara Kitai A small troop of Liao
- 150: When the Tungusic Juchen destroyed the Liao
- 151: Thus hastening the end of the Juchen state
- 152: In 1125 the Kitan empire was destroyed
- 153: Unless they became tenants on Juchen estates
- 154: Not until the sixteenth century did these Tunguses recover
- 155: Many Uighurs were also employed as clerks
- 156: Mongol wars followed in the south
- 157: The Mongols had not removed these landowners
- 158: The depreciation further impoverished the people
- 159: In 1352 Kuo Tz u hsing rose in southern Honan
- 160: The years 1355 1368 were full of small battles
- 161: And a Mongol named T'o t'o Tokto
- 162: As envisaged by the Mongol rulers
- 163: Small states came into existence in Turkestan
- 164: Becoming the recognized emperor of China Ming dynasty
- 165: At the end of the Ming dynasty
- 166: From Kiangsi and Fukien to Kwangtung and Kwangsi
- 167: Nanking continued to remain the cultural capital of China
- 168: The Hsin an merchants specialized first in silver trade
- 169: And these new educated eunuchs
- 170: The Chinese drama made further progress in the Ming epoch
- 171: This remained so in the Ming epoch
- 172: Marched south and captured Nanking
- 173: And Annam had been reconquered
- 174: The emperor Hsuean Tsung 1426 1435
- 175: The leader of the eunuchs was Liu Chin
- 176: The province of Kiangsi was a part of the Yangtze region
- 177: Also got interested in Wang Yang ming
- 178: The Mongols had subjugated the Juchen
- 179: This group was opposed to Wei Chung hsien
- 180: Li came from the province of Shensi
- 181: Continually pursued by Wu San kui
- 182: Wu San kui made himself emperor
- 183: China ink drawing of the eighteenth century
- 184: 7 Six mou are about one acre
- 185: But slow flow of people into Kwangsi
- 186: Thus Galdan tried to found an independent Mongol realm
- 187: Like the French encyclopaedias of the eighteenth century
- 188: One of the best known is Yuean Mei 1716 1797
- 189: The Kalmuks fought the Chinese without cessation until
- 190: These Kalmuks mainly the Turgut tribe
- 191: Stronger than in the Ming epoch
- 192: The Chinese were familiar with opium
- 193: And also the forts of Tientsin
- 194: Acquired land from the impoverished gentry
- 195: The leader was a quite simple man of Hakka blood
- 196: The other following Tseng Kuo fan
- 197: These Chinese who became Mohammedans are called Dungans
- 198: Roads and air communications opened Sinkiang
- 199: She annexed the Ryukyu Islands
- 200: Manchuria was returned to China
- 201: K'ang Yo wei and his followers
- 202: And whose undisputed leader was now Sun Yat sen
- 203: Yuean Shih k'ai was recalled November 10th
- 204: Sun Yat sen resigned in Nanking
- 205: They were influenced by the ideologies of the West
- 206: Confucianism rejected the principle
- 207: Created in 1915 by Ch'en Tu hsiu
- 208: Is unsuited to an alphabetical script
- 209: In Outer Mongolia Russian interests predominated
- 210: And accordingly opposed Yuean Shih k'ai
- 211: The new Kuomintang was more socialistic
- 212: Chiang Kai shek already played a prominent part
- 213: There were now four supreme commanders Chiang Kai shek
- 214: Chiang Kai shek took no action
- 215: Including some in the highest circles at Chungking
- 216: Attacks of the KMT against them
- 217: They were constantly strengthened by deserters from the KMT
- 218: The actual government of Taiwan
- 219: More teachers of Taiwanese origin
- 220: Groups of Taiwan Chinese who favour an independent Taiwan
- 221: The development of Communist China is not a miracle
- 222: China invaded and conquered Tibet
- 223: When the Chinese Communists discuss territorial claims
- 224: In which the marriage law of April 1950 was the first step
- 225: The outcome of the war in Vietnam
- 226: Jettmar Wiener Beitraege zur Kulturgeschichte
- 227: Heine Geldern elaborated this theory
- 228: I have relied upon Ch'en Meng chia
- 229: And again Ku Chieh kang and his school
- 230: Sekino studied the forms of cities
- 231: The Complete Works of Han Fei Tz u
- 232: For origin and early development of Hsiung nu society see O
- 233: My interpretation relies again upon Ku Chieh kang
- 234: In addition to my own sociological studies
- 235: Niida Noboru and other Japanese scholars
- 236: The T'u yue hun are called Aza in Central Asian sources P
- 237: Clay or wood were not affected Michihata
- 238: On the origin of guilds see Kat o Shigeru
- 239: On iron money see Yang Lien sheng
- 240: 223 On the Kara Kitai see Appendix to Wittfogel Feng
- 241: 243 Lamaism in Mongolia disappeared later
- 242: For Lu Hsiang shan the book by Huang Siu ch'i
- 243: Chun ko erh are one of the four Oeloet Oirat groups
- 244: Dungans and Yakub Beg's rebellion
- 245: See Franz Schurmann and Orville Schell
- 246: Northern Chou dynasty Chou En lai
- 247: Dynasty Hsin an merchants Hsin Ch'ing nien
- 248: Tribal federation Jurchen see Juchen K'ai feng
- 249: Mohammedans Mysticism Naiman
- 250: City see K'ai feng pien wen
- 251: Tribes see Thailand Tai Chen
- 252: Tribal group and area Yueeh chih